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Copyright Notice & Disclaimer
Statement
Chlamydial infection in birds may be asymptomatic or may appear
clinically as an acute, subacute, or chronic disease. Clinical signs and
mortality vary with the species of bird affected, virulence of the strain,
infective dose, stress factors, age, route of exposure, and extent of
treatment or prophylaxis.
Birds with symptomatic chlamydiosis typically resemble birds with any
other systemic illness. Affected birds may be lethargic, anorectic, and
have ruffled feathers. Other signs of illness include serous or
mucopurulent ocular or nasal discharge and diarrhea, with urates stained
green to yellow-green. Anorectic birds may have sparse dark green
drippings. Birds may die acutely, or as the disease progresses, the bird
may become emaciated, dehydrated, and die.
A confirmed case of chlamydia infection is defined as a bird with or
without clinical illness compatible with chlamydiosis and one or more of
the following confirmatory laboratory results:
(1) isolation of C. psittaci from a clinical specimen
(2) chlamydial antigen detected by immunofluorescence (fluorescent
antibody, FA) or ELISA of tissues
(3) fourfold or greater change in serologic titer between 2 specimens
obtained 2 or more weeks apart, run at the same lab, preferably in
parallel
(4) Chlamydia organisms identified within macrophages in stained (Gimenez,
Machiavelo) smears or sections of tissues.
A probable case of chlamydiosis is defined as a bird with clinical
illness compatible with chlamydiosis and one or more of the following
confirmatory laboratory results:
(1) A single high serologic titer in 1 or more specimens obtained after
the onset of signs
(2) Chlamydia antigen detected by ELISA or FA of feces, a cloacal swab,
or respiratory or ocular exudates.
A suspect case of chlamydiosis is defined as either:
(1) a clinical illness compatible with chlamydiosis without confirmatory
laboratory results (especially in birds epidemiologically linked to other
human or bird cases)
(2) an asymptomatic condition in which laboratory results are
equivocal, for example, a single high serologic titer or detection of
chlamydial antigen
(3) a clinical or asymptomatic condition in which laboratory results
are positive using a new investigational or non-standardized test
(4) a clinical illness compatible with chlamydiosis which is responsive
to appropriate therapy
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All birds with confirmed or probable chlamydiosis should be placed in
isolation and treated, preferably under the supervision of a licensed
veterinarian. Suspect birds, or birds exposed to chlamydiosis, should be
isolated and retested, or treated. There is no vaccine against avian
chlamydiosis. Because a treated bird can be reinfected with C. psittaci
after treatment, it should be kept isolated from untreated birds or other
potential sources of infection. Thorough cleaning and sanitizing of the
aviary is necessary to prevent reinfection from environmental sources.
(1) Stress, poor husbandry, and malnutrition will reduce the effectiveness
of treatment and encourage the development of secondary infections by
other bacteria and yeast. Fresh water and appropriate vitamins should be
provided at all times.
(2) The birds should be observed daily to ensure they are eating and
should be weighed every 3 to 7 days.
(3) Administration of antibiotics through the drinking water is not
effective.
(4) Birds to be treated should be held in clean cages and not
overcrowded. All breeding should be stopped.
(5) Spilled food should be cleaned up promptly and water and food
containers washed daily.
(6) High dietary concentrations of calcium or other divalent cations
will reduce absorption of tetracyclines.
Recent changes in importation regulations have greatly reduced the
number of imported birds. While helpful, import regulations do not
guarantee that birds released from USDA import stations are free of
chlamydiosis. The disease is also imported through smuggled birds. Current
regulations regarding commercially imported birds require:
(1) Import permit in advance of shipping and a health certificate from the
exporting country.
(2) Minimum quarantine period of 30 days for each lot of birds. The
30-day holding time is in response to the threat of exotic Newcastle
Disease to the poultry industry.
(3) All psittacines birds must receive medicated feed (see Appendix B)
(4) Recommendations by the USDA are made to importers to continue CTC
treatment for an additional 15 days except for budgerigars.
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to Psittacosis Index
(1) Maintenance of accurate records on all bird
transactions is strongly encouraged to aid in identification of sources
of infected birds and potentially exposed individuals. Records should
include the source, date of purchase, species, and any identified
illnesses or deaths. When birds are sold, the name, address and phone
number of the customer, date of purchase, species purchased, and the
band number (if applicable) should be recorded by the seller.
(2) Birds with signs compatible with chlamydiosis
should not be purchased or sold.
(3) Before adding new birds to a group, the birds
should be quarantined and observed for a 14-30 day period and tested or
prophylactically treated. Birds that are boarded or sold on consignment
should be placed in a separate part of the store that has separate
air-handling equipment. Birds should be tested for chlamydiosis prior to
boarding or agreeing to sell birds for a third party.
(4) Preventive husbandry: Cages should be
positioned so that droppings, feathers, food and other materials from
one cage cannot enter another cage. Cages should not be stacked.
Solid-sided cages or barriers should be used if cages are adjoining.
Each cage should be cleaned daily. Food and water bowls should be
emptied, cleaned with soap and water, rinsed, placed in a disinfectant
solution, and rinsed well on a daily basis. Between occupancy by
different birds, the cages should be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and
water, disinfected and then rinsed in clean running water. Exhaust
ventilation should be sufficient to prevent accumulation of aerosol in
the air.
(5) Husbandry during infection: If chlamydiosis
is found or suspected, birds requiring treatment should be held in
isolation. Rooms and cages where infected birds were housed should be
immediately cleaned and disinfected. Cages should be of ample size,
preferably one bird to a cage, and should have a wire mesh bottom to
keep birds off the floor. A nondusty litter, such as newspapers, should
be placed underneath the wire mesh. When the cage requires cleaning, the
bird should be transferred into a clean cage, and the soiled cage should
be thoroughly scrubbed with a detergent to remove all droppings, rinsed,
then disinfected. Allow adequate contact time (at least 5 minutes), and
rerinse to remove the disinfectant. The cages, air handling system, and
room holding the bird should be thoroughly disinfected prior to the end
of treatment to eliminate chlamydial organisms from the environment. All
items that cannot be adequately disinfected (e.g., wooden perches, nest
material, and litter) should be discarded. During treatment, precautions
should be taken to keep circulation of feathers and dust to a minimum.
This can be done by frequent wet-mopping with disinfectants, liberal use
of oil-impregnated sweeping compound between moppings and prevention of
air currents and drafts. To reduce dust contamination, the floor can be
sprayed with an appropriate disinfectant or water prior to sweeping. The
use of vacuum cleaners is strongly discouraged to prevent aerosolization
of particles. Cage waste should be frequently removed (after moistening)
and burned or double bagged before disposal. Whenever possible, healthy
birds should be cared for prior to handling isolated birds.
(6) Disinfection: Because the infectious
particle of C. psittaci is high in lipid content, it is
susceptible to most disinfectants and detergents. In the clinic or
laboratory, 1:1000 dilution of quarternary ammonium compounds (alkyldimethylbenzylammonium
chloride e.g. Roccal or Zephiran) is effective, as well as 70% isopropyl
alcohol, 1% Lysol, 1:100 dilution of household bleach (2 ½ tbsp. per
gallon), or chlorophenols. Chlamydia organisms are susceptible to
heat and resistant to acid and alkali. Disinfectants can be respiratory
irritants, and should be used in a well ventilated area. Avoid mixing
disinfectants with any other product.
(7) Personal protection: All persons in contact
with infected birds should be informed about the nature of the disease.
A physician should be consulted if respiratory illness develops in
personnel so that early and specific treatment for psittacosis can be
initiated. Personnel should wear protective clothing, gloves, a paper
surgical cap, and a dust-mist mask when cleaning cages or handling
infected birds. Surgical masks may not be effective in preventing
transmission. In high risk situations the use of a well-fitting
sub-micron or high efficiency particulate (HEPA) mask may be considered.
When potentially infected birds are necropsied, additional precautions
include wetting the carcass with detergent and water to prevent
aerosolization of infectious particles, and working under an exhaust-fan
examining hood.
Return
to Psittacosis Index
Veterinarians should be aware that chlamydiosis is not
rare in pet birds. The disease should be considered in any lethargic bird
with non-specific signs of illness, especially if the bird was recently
purchased. If chlamydiosis is suspected, appropriate laboratory specimens
should be submitted to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory to confirm the
diagnosis. Laboratories and the attending veterinarian should follow local
and state regulations and/or guidelines regarding reporting of cases and
should work closely with the authorities who conduct investigations in
their jurisdiction. The veterinarian should inform the client that the
bird should be isolated and treated appropriately. In addition, the client
should be informed of the public health hazard, appropriate precautions,
and the need to seek medical attention if persons exposed to the bird
develop flu-like symptoms or respiratory tract illness.
Because of the severe economic impact of quarantines,
reasonable options should be made available to the owner/operator. The
purpose of quarantine is to prevent further disease transmission, not to
discourage further disease reporting. With the approval of appropriate
local or state authorities, the owner of the quarantined birds may choose
one of several options:
(1) treat the birds;
(2) remove the birds from the premises and treat in a
separate quarantine area;
(3) euthanize the birds.
Birds under quarantine may be sold if they have
completed at least 7 days of treatment , provided that the new owner
agrees in writing to continue the quarantine and treatment, and is
informed of the disease hazards. Following complete treatment or removal
of the birds, a quarantine may be lifted after the infected premises are
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. At that point, the area can be
restocked.
Reference for this page.
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians Inc.
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